Native American Voices Introduction: Part I. Part I. Introduction Prehistoric Patterns of Change The Cultures of Prehistoric America The Eve of Contact Kinship and Religion Part II. European Perceptions The Clash of Cultures English Encounters Native Americans and European Contests for Empire Part III. Cultural Survival Strategies Clearing the Land of Indians The "Five Civilized Tribes" and the Civil War The Tragedy of the Western Indians Resistance on the Great Plains Wounded Knee Part IV. "Kill the Indian and Save the Man" Native Americans at the Turn of the Century Revitalization and Renewal Indian Power European Perceptions In 1646, a Christian convert asked the Massachusetts missionary John Eliot: "Why do you call us Indians?" The answer is readily apparent even to young schoolchildren. Because Columbus mistakenly believed he had arrived in the East Indies, near Japan and China, he called the islanders indios. Even though European realized within a quarter century that Columbus had not reached the East Indies, the name Indian continued to be used. The term Indian was a European-imposed concept. There was not a single monolithic Indian culture, nor did the diverse indigenous inhabitants of North America think of themselves as a single people. They were acutely conscious of the diversity of beliefs, customs, and cultures. European colonists, however, were unable to appreciate or comprehend the rich diversity of the Native Americans and tended to conflate the Indian people into a single, undifferentiated group. They classified this vast indigenous population as "Indian," described their color as "red," and considered their religions pagan, their languages incomprehensible, their politics disorganized, and their agriculture and land use patterns primitive. The French philosopher Montaigne reflected a pervasive ignorance about Indians when he pronounced that the Indians had "no knowledge of letters, no intelligence of numbers, no name of magistrate, nor of politics...no occupation but idle, no apparel but natural...." Europeans were shocked by the contrasts between the cultures, particularly in gender roles and childrearing practices. They invariably commented on the essential economic roles performed by Indian women, as farmers, house-builders, traders, and sometimes as sachems. And they were also shocked to discover that Indians did not physically punish their children. The Indian young were encouraged to behave properly largely through praise and public rewards for achievement, and were seldom spanked. Convinced that corporal punishment made children timid and dependent, parents praised children when they were good and publicly shamed them when they misbehaved. Indians offered a screen on which Europeans projected Old World fears and fantasies. Many Europeans regarded the Indians as "natural man," free of all of civilization's restraints. According to this stereotype, the Indians embodied innocence and freedom, lacking sexual restraints, law, and private property, yet possessing health and eternal youth. Arthur Barlowe, who visited Roanoke Island, off the coast of North Carolina, in 1584, described the Native Americans as nature's nobility: We found the people most gentle, loving and faithful, void of all guile and treasure, and such as live after the manner of the golden age. Another favorite stereotype was the somber, wise Indian, divorced from his tribe, who assists whites in their plans to civilize the wilderness. This early stereotype would persist into the nineteenth century in James Fenimore Cooper's literary creation of Chingachgook, the friend of the white frontiersman Natty Bumppo, and into the twentieth century in Tonto, the Lone Ranger's sidekick. But if some Europeans regarded Indians with fascination, many others looked at them with hatred and fear. A contrasting stereotype, often invoked to legitimate white aggression, was the "bloodthirsty savage" who stood in the way of progress and civilization. Colonists repeatedly referred to Indians in the most pejorative terms, as "inhumanly cruel," "brutish beasts" of "most wilde and savage nature." If the "noble savage" deserved to be "civilized" and "Christianized" in the white man's image, then the "bloodthirsty savage" had to be eliminated. Such self-serving stereotypes long prevented Europeans from seeing Native Americans in their true diversity and individuality. From an early date, the English colonists were convinced that "civilization" could not coexist with "savagery." Either Indians would have to be reformed in the image of whites or else they had to be removed. This view did not bode well for future relations between the English settlers and their descendants and North America's Indian people. The Clash of Cultures Relations between Indians and Europeans during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ran the spectrum from cooperation and accommodation to bitter conflict. Where the number of colonists was fewest, relationships were based on trade, and the Indians viewed the Europeans as potential allies, relations were friendliest. Where European numbers were greatest and their primary objective was Indian land or labor, relations were least friendly. By the early eighteenth century, however, it was already clear that friendly relations and cooperation would be the exception, since in areas as diverse as New Mexico, New England, Pennsylvania, and the Chesapeake Bay region of Virginia and Maryland, European colonizers were encroaching on Indian lands and radically disrupting the Indian ways of life. In Mexico and Central and South America, the Spanish, unlike the English or the French, viewed Indians as a usable labor force--to be put to work to raising crops, tending animals, and extracting valuable minerals from mines. In the early 1500s Spanish policy forced many Indians to work on Spanish estates. Under the encomienda system, colonists were granted the right to demand tribute from Indians living on a given piece of land. Often the colonists forced the Indians to farm or work in mines as payment. Gradually, the Indians became bound to the land because they had no other way to pay tribute. North of Mexico, Spain's perspective changed. Relatively few Spaniards migrated to New Spain's northernmost frontiers, because the area lacked mineral riches. Here, Indians were viewed essentially as buffers to protect Spain's New World empire and as objects of religious conversion. Beginning in the 1560s, Jesuit and Franciscan priests established missions in what are now Florida and Georgia and then, starting in the early 1600s, in present-day Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas. In Florida and much later in California, missions were enclosed, self-sufficient communities combining farming with the manufacture of pottery, woven blankets, and other goods. In New Mexico, in contrast, where a large Pueblo population inhabited settled villages, Franciscan missionaries established churches on the edge of towns. During the sixteenth century, cultural conflicts between Spanish missionaries and Indians periodically erupted into violence. The most dramatic uprising took place in New Mexico in 1680, after Franciscan missionaries sought to suppress traditional Pueblo religious practices by desecrating a Pueblo kiva--a special room where religious activities took place--flogging Pueblo priests, and destroying sacred Indian artifacts. A Pueblo holy man named Pope led a revolt which killed over 400 Spanish colonists and destroyed every church in the New Mexico. Six years later, Spain restored its authority. But in order to maintain peace, Spain reached an accommodation with the Pueblo. In return for a pledge of loyalty to the Spanish crown and attendance at Catholic religious services, Spain promised to protect Pueblo lands from exploitation, abandon force Indian labor, and tolerate the secret practice of traditional Pueblo religion. The French and the Indians they encountered reached a different kind of accommodation. France's New World empire was based largely on trade. In 1504, French fishermen sailed into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, looking for cod. Gradually, the French realized that they could increase their profits by trading with the Indians for furs. In exchange for pelts, the French coureurs de bois (traders) supplied Indians with textiles, muskets, and other European goods. By the end of the sixteenth century, a thousand ships a year were engaged in the fur trade along the St. Lawrence River and the interior, where the French constructed forts, missions, and trading posts. Relations between the French and Indians were less violent than in Spanish or English colonies. In part, this reflected the small size of France's New World population. The French government had little interest in encouraging immigration and the number of settlers in New France remained small, totaling just 3,000 in 1663. Virtually all these settlers were men--mostly traders or Jesuit priests--and many took Indian wives or concubines, helping to promote relations of mutual dependency. Common trading interests also encouraged accommodation between the French and the Indians. Missionary activities, too, proved somewhat less divisive in New France than in New Mexico or New England, since France's Jesuit priests did not require them to immediately abandon their tribal ties or their traditional way of life. English Encounters Popular mythology recounts many instances of cooperation between English colonists and Native Americans. Grade schoolers learn about Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, an Indian chief in Virginia, who is said to have rescued Captain John Smith when her father was about to kill him. They encounter Squanto, a member of the Patuxet tribe of eastern Massachusetts, who taught the Pilgrims how to grow corn. They also hear about William Penn, the Quaker founder of Pennsylvania, who maintained friendly relations with the Indians. But there was another side to this story, missing from popular mythology: settlers poisoning Indians at peace parleys, offering them clothing infected with smallpox, and burning their villages and cornfields. In fact, encounters between the English and the Indian peoples were more problematic--and violent--than historical mythology suggests. Some English settlers dreamed of discovering gold or silver; others envisioned a lucrative trade in furs. But gradually the primary goal of the English was to acquire land. Unlike the French and Spanish, the English created self-sustaining settler colonies, populated with English, Scot, and Scots-Irish immigrants. And this meant displacing the indigenous inhabitants and expropriating their land. In English eyes, the Indians held only an ambiguous title to the land. They may have had some vague rights due to discovery and prior occupancy, but they lacked true title since they failed to make improvements. As early as 1609, an Englishman insisted on the right of English colonists to "plant ourselves in their places." "The greater part" of the land, wrote Robert Gray, "possessed and wrongfully usurped by wild beasts, and unreasoning creatures, or by brutish savages, which by reason of their godles[s] ignorance, and blasphemous Idolatrie, are worse than...beasts." The initial English-Indian encounters took place in the Southeast, where the Indian population was better prepared than elsewhere to resist English encroachments. On the eve of contact an estimated one million Indians lived in the region; and even though disease and warfare would soon reduce the indigenous population to just 75,000, these people revealed a remarkable capacity for resistance. In the Southeast, the Mississippian tradition of an urbanized population with centralized political authorities persisted. These people lived in villages, which were often quite sizable, with populations of a thousand or more, protected by wooden fences. In this region, the basic political unit was the chiefdom, consisting of a village or a group of villages ruled by a chief who gained his position through merit, and, in turn, distributed presents and other goods to the people he controlled. When the English entered their land, tribal chiefs in the Southeast were better able than elsewhere to mobilize their people against the outside threat. The first English settlement in North America was established in 1585 at Roanoke Island, off the cost of what is today North Carolina. A year earlier, Sir Walter Raleigh had sent an expedition to explore the region, and brought two Algonquian Indians back to England: Manteo, who converted to Christianity; and Wanchese, who later led opposition to English colonization. The English planned to explore Roanoke and the mainland for gold and silver, trade for furs, and raise bananas and sugar and other crops on plantations. Even though the colonists relied on the Indians for food, they treated them in a brutal manner, kidnapping women, burning cornfields, and ultimately beheading the local chief, Wingina. Then, the expedition returned to England. In 1587, another expedition returned to Roanoke. Unlike the first, which consisted of soldiers and adventurers, this one was made up of families. Clashes erupted between the colonists and local Indians. Later that year, the colonists' leader, John White, returned to England for supplies. He did not return until 1590, when he discovered a shocking sight: buildings in ruin, food and armor scattered on the ground, and the word "CROATOAN" carved on the door post of the colony's crumbling fort. There was no sign of a cross, which White and the settlers had designated as a distress sign. The colony's 84 men, 17 women, and 11 children had vanished. What happened to the "Lost Colony"? Some scholars believe that Manteo had led the colonists to Croatoan village, fifty miles south of Roanoke Island, where they intermarried with the Indians. Others speculate that the colonists later moved northward toward Chesapeake Bay, where the powerful Chief Powhatan executed the intruders. To this day, no one knows the answer to this historical mystery. The first permanent English settlement, Jamestown, was built in 1607 in a swampy area, along Virginia's James River. Approximately 30,000 Algonquian Indians lived in the Chesapeake region, divided into some forty tribes. Thirty tribes belonged to a confederacy led by Powhatan. Relations between the colonists and the Indians rapidly deteriorated. Food was the initial source of conflict. More interested in finding precious metals than in farming, Jamestown's residents got part of their food from the Indians, which they exchanged for English goods. When the English began to simply seize Indian food stocks, Powhatan cut off supplies, forcing the colonists for a time to subsist on frogs, snakes, and even decaying corpses. Relations worsened after the colonists began to clear the land and plant tobacco. Since tobacco production rapidly exhausted the soil of nutrients, the English began to acquire new lands along the James River, encroaching on Indian hunting grounds. In 1622, the growing hostility erupted into violence. Powhatan's successor, Opechancanough, attempted to wipe out the English in a surprise attack. Two Indian converts to Christianity warned the English; still, 347 settlers, or about one third of the English colonists died in the attack. Warfare persisted for ten years, followed by an uneasy peace. In 1644, Opechancanough launched a last, desperate attack. After two years of warfare, in which some 500 colonists were killed, Opechancanough was captured and shot and the survivors of Powhatan's confederacy, now numbering just 2,000, agreed to submit to English rule. Farther south, English settlers manipulated tribal rivalries to open land to white settlement. In South Carolina, the English effectively pitted groups like the Tuscaroras, the Cherokees, the Creeks, and the Yamasees against one another. The Tuscaroras had taken many Algonquians captive and sold them into slavery. Between 1711 and 1713, the English took advantage of intertribal hostility by convincing the Algonquians to join them in a war against the Tuscaroras. When the conflict was over, over 1,000 Tuscaroras (a fifth of the tribe) were sold into slavery. Half the remaining Tuscaroras then migrated to New York, where they became the sixth nation of the Iroquois League. Then, in 1715, the European settlers succeeded in mobilizing the Cherokees against the Creeks and the Yamasees, forcing the Creeks to move westward and the surviving Yamasees southward into territory controlled by Spain, clearing valuable rice land of Indians in the process. In the Northeast, Indians found it difficult to resist the English invaders unless they were able to ally themselves with a European power. Compared to the Southeast, the Northeast was much less densely populated. The 140,000 who inhabited the area in 1600 fell to just 10,000 by 1675. The tribes in this area were also more fragmented politically; except for the Iroquois, they were not organized into political confederacies. Politically, this was a region of autonomous villages that made decisions by consensus. It was also a region with a long history of tribal rivalries. The migration of Puritan colonists into western Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 1630s provoked bitter warfare. Part of this land was claimed by the Pequots, the region's most powerful people. In 1636, English settlers accused a Pequot of murdering a colonist; in revenge, they burned a Pequot settlement on what is now Block Island, Rhode Island. In 1637, the Pequots struck at Wethersfield in Connecticut, killing several colonists. A force of Puritans and Narragansett Indians retaliated a month later by surrounding and setting fire to the main Pequot village on the Mystic River. Between six and seven hundred Pequot men, women and children were burned alive. The force's commander declared that God had "laughed at his enemies...making them as a fiery oven." The defeat of the Pequots allowed white settlers to move into the New England interior, where they intruded on Indian homelands. In 1675, the chief of the Pokanokets, Metacomet (whom the English called King Philip), forged a military alliance of two-thirds of the region's Indians. In 1675, he led an attack on Swansea, Massachusetts. Over the next year, both sides raided villages and killed hundreds of victims. Twelve out of ninety New England towns were destroyed. Relative to the size of the population, King Philip's War (1675-76) was the bloodiest in American history. Five percent of New England's population was killed--a higher proportion than Germany or Russia lost during World War II. Indian casualties were far higher; perhaps forty percent of New England's Indian population was killed or fled the region. The colonists captured Philip's wife and son, and sold them into slavery. Metacomet was killed in 1676, ending the war in southern New England. Fighting in the north continued until 1678. When the war was over, the power of New England's Indians was broken. The region's remaining Indians would live in small, scattered communities, serving as the colonists' servants and tenants. Even in Pennsylvania, whose Quaker founder William Penn envisioned a "peaceable kingdom" where people of diverse backgrounds and religious beliefs could live together harmoniously, Indians were displaced from their lands. Before leaving England, he wrote to the Delawares, the dominant tribe in the region, expressing his hope that "we may always live together as neighbors and friends." True to his word, Penn met with the Delawares and told them that he would not take land from them unless sanctioned by tribal chieftains. Committed to treating Native Americans fairly in negotiating land rights, Penn purchased Delaware lands before reselling them to settlers and prohibited the sale of alcohol. Penn's policies were so unusual that they encouraged the Miamis, the Shawnees, and other peoples to move to Pennsylvania. However, after his death, Penn's own sons and agents reversed his policies, and Pennsylvania's colonists pushed the Delaware and other peoples off their land without compensation.   Native Americans and European Contests for Empire Along the eastern coast, England, France, the Netherlands, and Spain all competed over trade with the Indians. In the Northeast, England, France, and the Netherlands struggled to control the immensely valuable fur trade. In the Southeast, it was not furs that drew the English, the Spanish, and later the French, but deerskin (used to make clothes, gloves, and book bindings) and Indian slaves. During the early eighteenth century, Indian slaves (many of whom had been converted to Catholicism at Spanish missions before capture) made up a sizeable proportion of the slaves in South Carolina and other southeastern colonies. Competition over furs, skins, and slaves had many destructive effects on Native Americans. It made Indians increasingly dependent on European manufactured goods and firearms. The trade also killed off animals that provided a major part of the hunting and gathering economy. And traders spread disease and alcohol. The fur trade also conflicted with traditional Indian religious beliefs, which charged hunters with never killing more animals than they needed. Above all, competition over trade encouraged intertribal warfare and thus undermined the Indians' ability to resist white incursions. In what is now New York, for example, the Dutch and the English pitted their allies, the Iroquois, against the Huron, who served as middlemen between French traders and other tribes. In the ensuing warfare, the Hurons were driven westward. During the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Indians frequently became embroiled in European wars to control North America. Four times between 1689 and 1763, France, England, and their Indian allieswaged wars over land between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River, fishing grounds off Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and control of the fur trade. The last and most important conflict, the French and Indian War (1754-1763), began partly because the Iroquois started to allow British settlement in the Ohio River valley. The French, afraid that they would be cut out of the fur trade, retaliated by building a chain of forts along Pennsylvania's Allegheny River. France's defeat permitted English colonists to move into newly acquired lands in the interior. No longer able to play the French off against the British, Indians found it increasingly difficult to slow the rapid advance of white settlers into western parts of South and North Carolina, Virginia and Pennsylvania, New York's Mohawk Valley, and the lower Mississippi River. To stop encroachments on their lands in the Southeast, the Cherokees attacked frontier settlements in the Carolinas and Virginia in 1760. Defeated the next year by British regulars and colonial militia, the Cherokees had to allow the English to build forts on their territory. Indians in western New York and Ohio suffered a serious defeat in Pontiac's War (1763). With the French threat removed, the British reduced the price paid for furs, allowed settlers to take Indian land without payment, and built forts in violation of treaties with local tribes. In the spring of 1763 an Ottawa chief named Pontiac led an alliance of Delaware, Seneca, Shawnee, and other western Indians in rebellion. Pontiac's alliance attacked forts in Indiana, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin that Britain had taken over from the French, destroying all but three. Pontiac's forces then moved eastward, attacking settlements in western Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, killing more than 2,000 colonists. Without assistance from the French, however, Pontiac's rebellion petered out by the year's end. To restore western peace, royal officials issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited colonists from purchasing Indian lands and closed the trans-Mississippi West to white settlement. This scheme failed when land-hungry frontiersmen and speculators repeatedly petitioned the British government to negotiate treaties allowing them to purchase millions of acres of Indian land in the Ohio River valley. To end this pressure, Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774, transferring control of Indian trade in the area between the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to the French-speaking province of Quebec. But this act provoked outrage among American colonists, convinced that British government was seeking to transform the West into a preserve for "papists" and "savages." The prohibition on English settlement in the West was a major cause of the American Revolution. In the 1770s, such tribes as the Delaware, the Wyandot, the Shawnee, and the Cayuga, staged raids into what is now Kentucky and West Virginia in response to an influx of white traders and farmers into the area south of the Ohio River. Whites accused the Indians of transforming Kentucky into a "dark and bloody ground," and struck back. In Lord Dunmore's War (1774), 3,000 British soldiers defeated 1,000 Indians, forcing the Indians to abandon their hunting grounds south of the Ohio River. During the American Revolution itself, both the British and the American patriots sought to keep Indians neutral. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress asked Indians "not to join on either side," since "you Indians are not concerned in it." Two peoples tried to use the revolution as an opportunity to halt white settlement on their territory, the Shawnee in Kentucky and the Cherokee in frontier Carolina and Virginia. But in each case, these people suffered defeats at the hands of the colonial militias, forcing them to give up land in Kentucky, the western Carolinas, and eastern Georgia to the Americans. The Revolution also had fateful consequences for another group of Indians, the Iroquois Confederacy, who divided over whether to support the British or the Americans. Those Iroquois tribes that aligned with the British--the Cayugas, Mohawks, and Senecas--were defeated in battle in 1779, and left New York State and western Pennsylvania to resettle in British Canada. Even after the revolution, the eastern Indians still represented a formidable barrier to white expansion. In 1790, there were approximately 150,000 Native Americans east of the Mississippi River--a population greater than the number of European colonists in 1700. The Senecas inhabited the western portions of New York; the Kickapoos, Miamis, Wyandots, and other tribes populated the areas that would become Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, while the Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Creeks considered the future states of Alabama, Mississippi, and western Georgia their territory. But pressure on these areas was mounting. The end of the revolution unleashed a mad rush of pioneers to Kentucky and Tennessee. Between 1784 and 1790, clashes with the Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Shawnees left more than 1,500 whites dead or captured. Pressure to open up other areas was increasing. In 1790, the United States paid a large bribe to a Creek leader, Alexander McGillivray, to sign a peace treaty allowing whites to occupy lands in central Georgia. Under pressure from Spain, the Creeks renounced the treaty in 1792. President George Washington also wanted to open the country north of the Ohio River. The British, eager to maintain the lucrative fur trade, had refused to relinquish their military posts from this area and provided aid to the region's Delawares, Iroquois, Miamis, and Shawnees. During the 1790s, George Washington dispatched three armies to clear the Ohio country of Indians. Twice, a confederacy of eight tribes led by Little Turtle, chief of the Miamis, defeated American forces. In the first campaign, the United States suffered 200 casualties and in the second, Indians killed 900 soldiers. But in 1794, a third army defeated the Indians. A 3,000-man force under Anthony Wayne destroyed Indian villages in northwestern Ohio and then overwhelmed a thousand Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Under the Treaty of Greenville (1795), Native Americans ceded much of the present state of Ohio, in return for cash and a promise that the federal government would treat the Indian nations fairly in land dealings.

 Credits     Contact Us     Copyright 2003